The first people who chewed the fibers of the long slender reed probably in New Guinea, about 8,000 years ago-must have sensed a great gift in that initial trickle of sweet juice.
Sugar cane, which is believed to have made its debut in the South Pacific before working its way north to Southeast Asia and India in those ancient days, was immediately pleasing to all plant-eaters, man or animal. That taste for sugar has never diminished, whether it comes from cane, fruit, beets, maple and palm tree sap, or the fortunate collaboration between a flower and a bee. If it’s sweet, we surrender to it.
Not surprisingly, a sensational offering like this from nature was eventually going to be tinkered with by humans. As a result, sugar’s place in the culinary world has been carefully refined, taking it from simple sweetener to the art of high-gloss spun sugar decorations.
Along the way, sugar plays a role in everything from creme brulee to sweet and sour shrimp, and it’s worth knowing the differences among types of sugars and how they work in many recipes, particularly desserts.
The processing of raw sugar determines crystal size, color and flavor, all of which affect the flavor and texture of food. There is the packable stickiness of dark brown sugar, the harder grains of granulated white sugar and the dust of confectioners’ sugar, which gets some of its color and powdery feel from the addition of cornstarch.
To make sugar, workers extract juice, primarily from cane or sugar beets, then clarify, concentrate and crystallize the liquid. Natural films of molasses are removed from raw sugar and added, in a more purified form, to make brown sugars. It takes a lot of work, especially when compared to the one-step sources — fruit and honey — from which early civilizations got their sweeteners.
As with salt and spices, which enlivened dull and meager European diets before the development of culinary arts, sugar was a difficult-to-obtain luxury that turned into an essential ingredient for the average eater, according to author Sidney W. Mintz in his book “Sweetness and Power.”
“As sugars came to be viewed as everyday necessities for larger and larger segments of the population, they were progressively incorporated into innovative contexts,” Mintz writes. “Tea with sugar was the first substance to become part of a work break … sucrose-heavy foods — treacle, jams, raw sugar for tea and baking, puddings and baked goods — came to form a bigger portion of the caloric input of the working-class diet.”
Americans today consume about 43 pounds of added sugar per person each year, according to the Food and Drug Administration. Much of that sugar is added to processed foods and confections; the rest we sprinkle and stir into meals ourselves.
It’s only natural: We’re born with a taste for sugar, according to Gary Beauchamp, director of the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia.
“Even premature babies have shown a preference for sweeteners,” when given a choice between plain and sugared water, says Beauchamp. Testing shows that specific physical reactions are noted when people eat sweet things, including a relaxation of facial muscles, a change in heart rate and the alleviation of pain.
That somewhat narcotic effect may be one reason lovers exchange sweets, especially at this time of year.
We’ll take our sugar however — and whenever — we can get it. But first, take a look into the sugar bowl to see how many ways there are to spoon it up.
Sugar’s assets
Sugar’s changeable nature is what makes it a valuable ingredient.
Aside from merely adding flavor to food, cooked sugar adds aroma; helps tenderize baked goods; provides food for yeast to feed on in bread dough; helps stabilize the foam in beaten egg whites; and adds colors — gold to brown — to food when it is cooked.
Take a look at how sugar is used in the following foods:
Meringue: “Humidity is the big enemy of sugar, so winter is the best time to make meringue,” said Jacquy Pfeiffer, co-owner of the French Pastry School in Chicago. Sugar is attracted to moisture in the air and sucks it in, keeping the crystals soft. Meringues should be made in a dry atmosphere and allowed to cool the same way; meringues often are cooled overnight in the oven with the heat turned off.
Burnt sugar, or brulee: In addition to the sugar found in the crust and filling, the tart on this page has a hard, crackly top familiar to fans of creme brulee. Direct heat melts and darkens the sugar, giving it a toasted, not-quite-burnt flavor. As the liquid sugar top cools, it hardens into a crisp, uniform layer.
Sweet-and-sour sauce: The opposite flavors work to enhance each other, softening bitter edges and cutting through overly sweet sensations. The vinegar in this recipe also keeps the sugar smooth and pliable, helping create a slightly syrupy sauce.
Fruit crumble: Sugar cooked with acidic orange juice and cranberries dissolves and becomes syrupy, while the beads of flour-coated sugar in the crumble top will retain some of its grittiness even after baking.
Crystal clear tips
“Sugar always wants to crystallize, to come back to its natural form,” Pfeiffer said.
That urge to stay crystallized is the key to sugar’s prima donna nature. Cooks and chefs like Pfeiffer wrangle those sugar crystals into the desired form by heating or cooling sugar, or adding liquid or solid ingredients.
“You need a lot of discipline when working with sugar to make sure your equipment is very clean,” Pfeiffer said while pulling and twisting a taffylike mass of sugar into birds, flowers and other decorative forms.
“If you introduce just a small piece of dirt, the sugar crystals form around it. That’s why white sugar is used in fine confections; brown sugar has too many impurities,” courtesy of its molasses content.
Even when heated, as in making caramel, sugar can easily return to grittiness if the caramel is stirred rapidly or often while heating. Those agitated crystals attach to other molecules while cooling, making the final mixture lumpy.
But add too much acid to sugar-as in lemon juice-and you keep the crystals small and the mixture syrupy. Egg whites and fats such as butter and cream do a similar job by coating small sugar crystals and preventing them from attaching to others.
Sources: The Sugar Association; The American Dietetic Association’s “Complete Food and Nutrition Guide”; “Cookwise,” by Shirley Corriher.
KNOW YOUR SWEET STUFF
– Granulated white sugar
Raw cane or beet sugar processed to remove impurities and plant materials (above). These pure sucrose crystals are widely used in baking and cooking because they are not susceptible to caking, are free of natural impurities and have a neutral flavor.
– Superfine sugar Regular sugar that has been ground into even smaller crystals. It dissolves easily and so is often used to sweeten fruits, iced drinks and finely textured cakes.
– Confectioners’ sugar Regular sugar that has been ground to a powder, sifted and mixed with a small amount of cornstarch to prevent caking. It is often used in icings and whipped cream mixtures or other uncooked mixtures in which regular sugar would be too gritty.
– Fruit sugar (fructose)
Its crystals are more uniform than those of regular sugar, so it is often used in dry mixes for gelatins, puddings and drinks.
– Turbinado sugar
Raw sugar that has been partly processed to remove surface molasses, leaving it a tan color with a mild brown-sugar flavor.
– Demerara sugar
Light brown sugar with large, golden, slightly sticky crystals. It is popular in England for use in tea, coffee and hot cereals. (It also is sold in cubes, shown in the far left-hand photo.)
– Dark and light brown sugar
Regular sugar crystals coated with molasses syrup; dark brown sugar has a stronger molasses flavor than light. More moist than granulated white sugar, it packs easily. An extreme example is this Muscovado, which has a strong molasses flavor.
– Specialty sugars
Amber sugar crystals, colored with caramel, are intended as eye- catching sweeteners for drinks rather than as baking ingredients.
MILK CHOCOLATE TART BRULEE WITH HAZELNUT CRUST
Preparation time: 50 minutes
Chilling time: 1 hour 10 minutes
Cooking time: 40 minutes
Yield: 10 servings
Adapted from “Chocolate Passion,” by Tish Boyle and Timothy Moriarty.
Hazelnut crust:
1/3 cup blanched hazelnuts, see note
1 1/2 cups flour
1/8 teaspoon salt
1/2 cup confectioners’ sugar
2 tablespoons light brown sugar
4 large egg yolks
1 stick (1/2 cup) unsalted butter, softened
Milk chocolate filling:
1 1/2 cups milk
7 ounces milk chocolate, coarsely chopped
3 ounces bittersweet chocolate, coarsely chopped
2 teaspoons vanilla extract
3 each: whole eggs, egg yolks, room temperature
1/2 cup granulated sugar
Caramel topping:
1/2 cup plus 2 tablespoons granulated sugar
1. For crust, heat oven to 375 degrees. Toast hazelnuts on baking sheet 5 minutes. Remove from oven; cool. Place nuts and 2 tablespoons of the flour in food processor; pulse until finely ground.
2. Place ground nuts, remaining flour and salt in bowl of electric mixer; add confectioners’ sugar, brown sugar and 4 egg yolks. Beat on low speed to combine. Beat in butter on low speed to combine, 2-3 minutes. Form dough into ball; knead 2 or 3 times on lightly floured surface. Flatten into disc. Wrap well in wax paper. Refrigerate 1 hour.
3. Heat oven to 400 degrees. Lightly flour top and bottom of dough; roll between 2 sheets parchment or wax paper into 14-inch circle. Place in buttered 10-inch tart pan with removable bottom, pressing dough gently against sides. Trim excess dough from top of pan. Freeze 10 minutes.
4. Line tart shell with foil; fill with dried beans, rice or pie weights. Place on baking sheet; bake 15 minutes. Cool on a baking rack; remove foil when completely cool. Reduce oven temperature to 325 degrees.
5. For filling, heat milk in medium saucepan almost to simmer. Place chocolate in mixing bowl. Pour milk over; let sit until chocolate melts, 30 seconds. Whisk in vanilla. Blend eggs, yolks and sugar in large bowl; stir in chocolate mixture. Strain through fine-mesh sieve into tart shell. Bake until set, 20 minutes. Cool on baking rack.
6. For topping, heat broiler. Sprinkle sugar evenly over top of tart; smooth into even layer. Place 6 inches from broiler; broil until golden brown, rotating pan every minute, about 3 minutes.
Test kitchen note: Blanched, or skinned, hazelnuts can be found at specialty markets or nut stores. Whole hazelnuts can be toasted in a 350-degree oven 10 minutes to soften skin; remove skin by rubbing hazelnuts gently in a towel.
Nutrition information per serving:
Calories ………… 515 Fat ………… 26 g Saturated fat .. 13 g
% calories from fat .. 44 Cholesterol .. 245 mg Sodium …….. 90 mg
Carbohydrates …… 65 g Protein ……… 9 g Fiber ……… 1.5 g
PEAR-CRANBERRY CRISP
Preparation time: 20 minutes
Cooking time: 55 minutes
Yield: 8 servings
Adapted from a recipe by chef Erwin Dreschler of erwin restaurant.
Streusel topping:
1 cup each: flour, brown sugar, quick-cooking oatmeal
1/2 cup each: granulated sugar, chopped pecans
1 1/4 teaspoons cinnamon
2 sticks (1 cup) unsalted butter, cut into chunks
Crisp:
1 package (12 ounces) fresh cranberries
1/2 cup granulated sugar
1/4 cup orange juice
5 Bartlett or Anjou pears, skin on, cored, cut into 1-inch squares
2 tablespoons flour
1 1/2 teaspoons each: ground ginger, cinnamon
1 teaspoon nutmeg
1. Heat oven to 350 degrees. Combine all streusel topping ingredients in large bowl of electric mixer. Blend over low speed until crumbly, 5 minutes. Set aside.
2. Cook cranberries, sugar and orange juice in saucepan until cranberries pop, 5 minutes.
3. Place pears in large mixing bowl. Place flour, ginger, cinnamon and nutmeg in sifter; sift over pears. Toss. Stir in cranberries. Pour into buttered 13-by-9-inch baking dish. Cover with streusel topping. Bake until fruit is soft and topping is golden, 45 minutes.
Nutrition information per serving:
Calories ………… 645 Fat ………… 29 g Saturated fat .. 15 g
% calories from fat .. 40 Cholesterol … 60 mg Sodium …….. 15 mg
Carbohydrates …… 96 g Protein ……. 4.9 g Fiber ……….. 7 g
SWEET AND SOUR SHRIMP WITH SNOW PEAS
Preparation time: 20 minutes
Cooking time: 10 minutes
Yield: 4 servings
Developed in the Tribune test kitchen.
Sauce:
1 clove garlic
1 piece (1/2 inch) fresh ginger, peeled
1 tablespoon Chinese chili-garlic sauce
2 tablespoons each: peanut oil, sesame oil, sherry
6 tablespoons brown sugar
1/4 cup each: oyster sauce, red wine vinegar, chicken broth
1/2 cup ketchup
Freshly ground pepper
Shrimp:
2 tablespoons peanut oil
1 1/2 pounds medium shrimp, peeled, deveined
4 green onions, chopped
1/2 pound snow peas
1/2 cup each: sliced water chestnuts, shredded carrot
4 cups cooked white rice
1. For sauce, puree all ingredients in blender or food processor.
2. For shrimp, heat peanut oil in wok or large skillet over medium-high heat. Add shrimp. Cook without stirring until golden on one side, 2 minutes. Remove from wok with slotted spoon.
3. Add onions to wok; cook 1 minute. Add snow peas, water chestnuts, carrots and sauce. Cook 3 minutes, until sauce thickens and vegetables are softened. Stir in shrimp; cook 1 minute. Serve over rice.
Nutrition information per serving:
Calories ………… 775 Fat ………… 24 g Saturated fat … 4 g
% calories from fat .. 28 Cholesterol .. 260 mg Sodium ……. 840 mg
Carbohydrates …… 95 g Protein …….. 42 g Fiber ……… 3.6 g
MERINGUE HEARTS WITH WHIPPED CREAM AND RASPBERRIES
Preparation time: 45 minutes
Cooking time: About 2 hours
Yield: 4 servings
Developed in the Tribune test kitchen.
4 egg whites, at room temperature
2 teaspoons vanilla
1/8 teaspoon cream of tartar
1 cup plus 2 tablespoons sifted confectioners’ sugar
1 1/2 cups whipping cream
2 pints fresh raspberries or strawberries
1 tablespoon granulated sugar
2 teaspoons water
1. Heat oven to 225 degrees. Beat egg whites in large bowl of electric mixer on medium-high speed until foamy, 2 minutes. Add 1 teaspoon of the vanilla and cream of tartar; beat. Add 1 cup of the confectioners’ sugar, a few tablespoons at a time; beat until meringue forms stiff peaks, up to 10 minutes.
2. Spoon mixture into pastry bag. Line baking sheets with parchment paper. Pipe 4 heart-shaped outlines onto paper, about 41/2 inches wide. Fill bottom of heart with meringue and smooth to create floor of heart. Pipe second layer onto first to create sides; repeat. Bake until firm and crisp, 11/2–2 hours. Turn off heat, open oven door; let meringues sit 5 minutes in oven. Cool completely on wire rack.
3. Whip cream in bowl of electric mixer to soft peaks. Add 2 tablespoons of the confectioners’ sugar and remaining 1 teaspoon vanilla; beat until stiff peaks form. Place meringue hearts on serving plates. Spoon cream into hearts. Sprinkle 1 pint of the raspberries equally over cream in hearts.
4. Puree remaining pint of raspberries with granulated sugar and 2 teaspoons water. Strain; spoon sauce around hearts.
Nutrition information per serving:
Calories ………… 510 Fat ………… 34 g Saturated fat .. 21 g
% calories from fat .. 57 Cholesterol .. 120 mg Sodium …….. 90 mg
Carbohydrates …… 49 g Protein ……… 6 g Fiber ……….. 8 g
